莫扎特效應_互動百科, Mozart effect (knowledge - medical, health, music)
莫扎特效應
1993年，加利福尼亞大學歐文分校的戈登·肖教授進行了一項實驗：稱當人們聽一首莫劄特的曲子之後，人的大腦活力將會增強，思維更敏捷，運動更有效，甚至可緩解癲癇病人等患神經障礙的病人的病情。20世紀90年代初美國科學家的研究結論，商家即群起炒作用莫劄特音樂製作胎教音樂，給人誤導。2010年，維也納大學對所謂的“莫劄特效應”給出了相當明確的結果：這些新發現表明沒有證據說明聽莫劄特的音樂可以使人變得更聰明。
目錄
莫劄特效應，1993年加利福尼亞大學歐文分校的戈登·肖教授進行了一項實驗。他們讓大學生在聽完莫劄特的《雙鋼琴奏鳴曲》後馬上進行空間推理的測驗，結果發現大學生們的空間推理能力發生了明顯的提高。他們將這種現象稱作莫劄特效應。20世紀90年代初美國科學家的研究結論，商家即群起炒作，但其實這樣籠統的論斷是會誤導人的。因為莫劄特的創作主題豐富、風格多樣，他的音樂也有很多表現激越強烈的感情，或憂傷或狂熱或悲壯，這樣風格的音樂就算是天才之作也不適宜選作胎教音樂的莫劄特效應。科學家們對所謂的“莫劄特效應”給出了相當明確的結果。這些新發現表明沒有證據說明聽莫劄特的音樂可以使人變得更聰明。 [1]
1、1993年《自然》雜誌刊登了加利福尼亞大學歐文分校的心理學家法蘭西斯·h·勞舍爾和她的同事們的一項重大發現：聽莫劄特的音樂可以增強大學生三維空間分析能力。人們通常認為僅僅通過收聽莫劄特的K448 D大調雙鋼琴奏鳴曲，就可以強化學生的認知能力。只有很少的科學作品可以引起公眾的注意，而勞舍爾的這項發現是其中之一。《紐約時報》報導：聽莫劄特會使學生在美國大學入學SAT考試中獲得高分。更有甚者有些評論家稱莫劄特的音樂具有提高兒童的智力的魔力。
2、在科學界科學家們對勞舍爾的發現持懷疑態度，因為世界各地的研究者們發現難以得到同樣的研究結果。維也納大學的心理學家雅克布·皮奇尼哥、馬丁·沃拉錫克和安東·K·福曼對“莫劄特效應”報告結果的統計分析綜合了這個主題所有的科學研究記錄。重新研究了大約40項獨立研究所發表的學術論文，這一系列學術論文有來自美國也有來自世界其他地方，試驗參與者總數超過3000名。
3、維也納大學的研究者們的關鍵性發現非常明確：基於目前證據的積累，尚未找到支援聽莫劄特的音樂可以增加空間分析能力的證據。“我推薦給大家聽莫劄特，但是它不會達到大家所期望的的促進認知能力的效果。”這項研究的第一作者雅克布·皮奇尼哥說。1993年發表在《自然》雜誌上的這項特定的“莫劄特效應”，還未得到證實。因此美國艾茉利大學的心理學家斯科特·利林費爾德，在他最近出版的《50個流行的偉大心理學神話》中“莫劄特效應”已經排名第6 。
2、在科學界科學家們對勞舍爾的發現持懷疑態度，因為世界各地的研究者們發現難以得到同樣的研究結果。維也納大學的心理學家雅克布·皮奇尼哥、馬丁·沃拉錫克和安東·K·福曼對“莫劄特效應”報告結果的統計分析綜合了這個主題所有的科學研究記錄。重新研究了大約40項獨立研究所發表的學術論文，這一系列學術論文有來自美國也有來自世界其他地方，試驗參與者總數超過3000名。
3、維也納大學的研究者們的關鍵性發現非常明確：基於目前證據的積累，尚未找到支援聽莫劄特的音樂可以增加空間分析能力的證據。“我推薦給大家聽莫劄特，但是它不會達到大家所期望的的促進認知能力的效果。”這項研究的第一作者雅克布·皮奇尼哥說。1993年發表在《自然》雜誌上的這項特定的“莫劄特效應”，還未得到證實。因此美國艾茉利大學的心理學家斯科特·利林費爾德，在他最近出版的《50個流行的偉大心理學神話》中“莫劄特效應”已經排名第6 。
音樂和其他人類智慧活動間的關係，最早可以回溯至希臘古哲畢達哥拉斯（Ptyhagoras)的古典理論，可是到了近代，研究者所能夠證明的只限於在建立空間辨證能力和音樂之間的關係而已。大腦皮質的神經結構模型之建立，讓我們得以測試音樂和空間辨認能力的展現究竟是在大腦中如何產生因果關係。透過這項模型，我們知道音樂性的腦部活動和其他人類大腦中運作的辨認能力，都有一種共通的遺傳性神經機制，是由高度組織化的暫時空間密碼透過在大腦皮質地區的傳播而產生的。基於此，本文的作者預測，音樂和空間能力之間的關係性，其實是透過訓練陣列特定的神經元，藉以累積類比的模式，而能達成的音樂性運作思考。
上述的假設，衍生了以下的推論：音樂這種人類從出生便不分國界地享受、欣賞的事物，可以用來幫助發展上述的大腦皮質思考機制，而這種訓練同時可以加入對於空間辨認能力的訓練。事實上，在先前的研究中已經證明，聆聽音樂能短暫地提高空間辨認的能力，可是我們欲希望，透過音樂訓練和學習，可以讓學習者獨得一種長期的能力，而最大的希望則是讓大腦皮質還在成長狀態的小孩，可以藉著學習音樂，獨得長遠的能力培養。以下我們提供了兩種輔助性的研究，在其中我們將複製前人的一些發現，並進一步深入控討他們的心得。在較早的一項實驗中，我們請大學生共同聆聽莫劄特的奏鳴曲，以證明這咱聆聽可以幫助他們在空間辨能力上的短期提升，同時我們還將進一步以一些反復性極高的音樂來測試（像是菲力浦葛拉斯的低限主議音樂和那些迷幻搖滾舞曲）是否也有同樣提升的功能。第二項研究則將延伸一九九三年完成的重要理論，其理論指出，對三歲小孩施以音樂訓練，可以增強他們長期在非語言方面辨認能力的增強（羅奢.蕭.列汶和萊特於九三年的研究），本文最後，我們將以醫學的教育的觀點分別提出建議，以及未來實驗研究的主題和其他的機制控制。
上述的假設，衍生了以下的推論：音樂這種人類從出生便不分國界地享受、欣賞的事物，可以用來幫助發展上述的大腦皮質思考機制，而這種訓練同時可以加入對於空間辨認能力的訓練。事實上，在先前的研究中已經證明，聆聽音樂能短暫地提高空間辨認的能力，可是我們欲希望，透過音樂訓練和學習，可以讓學習者獨得一種長期的能力，而最大的希望則是讓大腦皮質還在成長狀態的小孩，可以藉著學習音樂，獨得長遠的能力培養。以下我們提供了兩種輔助性的研究，在其中我們將複製前人的一些發現，並進一步深入控討他們的心得。在較早的一項實驗中，我們請大學生共同聆聽莫劄特的奏鳴曲，以證明這咱聆聽可以幫助他們在空間辨能力上的短期提升，同時我們還將進一步以一些反復性極高的音樂來測試（像是菲力浦葛拉斯的低限主議音樂和那些迷幻搖滾舞曲）是否也有同樣提升的功能。第二項研究則將延伸一九九三年完成的重要理論，其理論指出，對三歲小孩施以音樂訓練，可以增強他們長期在非語言方面辨認能力的增強（羅奢.蕭.列汶和萊特於九三年的研究），本文最後，我們將以醫學的教育的觀點分別提出建議，以及未來實驗研究的主題和其他的機制控制。
1、整份研究顯示，莫劄特組在第二天的成績有顯著的增進，無聲組則無顯著的變化，這實驗結果正於羅奢於九三年所作的實驗結果相同。
2、在附加了一些節奏反復性高的音樂但卻毫無影響，所以可以推論，或許是因為音樂構成要素中某特定的組織要式，才使得人腦中的空間辨認能力受到影響的。另外聆聽說故事錄音帶也不造成影響，所以證明專注力並不是造成這項能力增進的主因。
3、科學家們開始討論聽古典音樂可以給人帶來某種影響已經超過15個年頭。2010年6月28日，維也納大學的研究人員對曾經發表在美國《情報》的這個所謂的“莫劄特效應”給出了相當明確的結果。這些新發現表明沒有證據說明聽莫劄特的音樂可以使人變得更聰明。
2、在附加了一些節奏反復性高的音樂但卻毫無影響，所以可以推論，或許是因為音樂構成要素中某特定的組織要式，才使得人腦中的空間辨認能力受到影響的。另外聆聽說故事錄音帶也不造成影響，所以證明專注力並不是造成這項能力增進的主因。
3、科學家們開始討論聽古典音樂可以給人帶來某種影響已經超過15個年頭。2010年6月28日，維也納大學的研究人員對曾經發表在美國《情報》的這個所謂的“莫劄特效應”給出了相當明確的結果。這些新發現表明沒有證據說明聽莫劄特的音樂可以使人變得更聰明。
注釋與參考：
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozart_effect
Mozart effect
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Mozart effect can refer to:
Rauscher et. al. show that the enhancing effect of the music condition is only temporary: no student had effects extending beyond the 15-minute period in which they were tested. The study makes no statement of an increase in IQ in general, but in participants' spatial intelligence scores.[4]
The 1997 book by Don Campbell, "The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit", discusses the theory that listening to Mozart (especially the piano concertos) may temporarily increase one's IQ and produce many other beneficial effects on mental function. Campbell recommends playing specially selected classical music to infants, in the expectation that it will benefit their mental development. These theories are controversial. The relationship of sound and music (both played and listened to) for cognitive function and various physiological metrics has been explored in studies with no definitive results. After The Mozart Effect, Campbell wrote a follow-up book, The Mozart Effect For Children, and created related products. Among these are collections of music that he states harness the Mozart effect to enhance "deep rest and rejuvenation", "intelligence and learning", and "creativity and imagination". Campbell defines the term as "an inclusive term signifying the transformational powers of music in health, education, and well-being. It represents the general use of music to reduce stress, depression, or anxiety; induce relaxation or sleep; activate the body; and improve memory or awareness. Innovative and experimental uses of music and sound can improve listening disorders, dyslexia, attention deficit disorder, autism, and other mental and physical disorders and diseases".[5]
In 1999 a major challenge was raised to the existence of the Mozart effect by two teams of researchers [12][13]. In a pair of papers published together under the title "Prelude or Requiem for the 'Mozart Effect'?" Chabris reported a meta-analysis demonstrating that "any cognitive enhancement is small and does not reflect any change in IQ or reasoning ability in general, but instead derives entirely from performance on one specific type of cognitive task and has a simple neuropsychological explanation", called "enjoyment arousal". For example, he cites a study that found that "listening either to Mozart or to a passage from a Stephen King story enhanced subjects' performance in paper folding and cutting (one of the tests frequently employed by Rauscher and Shaw) but only for those who enjoyed what they heard". Steele et. al. found that "listening to Mozart produced a 3-point increase relative to silence in one experiment and a 4-point decrease in the other experiment".[14]. In another study, the effect was replicated with the original Mozart music, but eliminated when the tempo was slowed down and major chords were replaced by minor chords. [15]
Government bodies also became involved in analysing the wealth (some 300+ articles as of 2005) of reports. A German report concluded, for instance, that "... passively listening to Mozart — or indeed any other music you enjoy — does not make you smarter. But more studies should be done to find out whether music lessons could raise your child's IQ in the long term".[16][17]
Popular presentations of the "Mozart effect", including Alex Ross's comment that "listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter" and Zell Miller's "don't you feel smarter" query to the Georgia legislature, almost always tie it to "intelligence." Rauscher, one of the original researchers, has disclaimed this idea. In a 1999 reply to an article challenging the effect,[14] published along with the article, she wrote (emphasis added):
- A set of research results that indicate that listening to Mozart's music may induce a short-term improvement on the performance of certain kinds of mental tasks known as "spatial-temporal reasoning;"[1]
- Popularized versions of the hypothesis, which suggest that "listening to Mozart makes you smarter", or that early childhood exposure to classical music has a beneficial effect on mental development;
- A US trademark for a set of commercial recordings and related materials, which are claimed to harness the effect for a variety of purposes. The trademark owner, Don Campbell, Inc.,[2] claims benefits far beyond improving spatio-temporal reasoning or raising intelligence, defining the mark as "an inclusive term signifying the transformational powers of music in health, education, and well-being."
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[edit] Alfred A. Tomatis
The concept of the "Mozart effect" was described by French researcher, Dr. Alfred A. Tomatis in his 1991 book Pourquoi Mozart? (Why Mozart?). He used the music of Mozart in his efforts to "retrain" the ear, and believed that listening to the music presented at differing frequencies helped the ear, and promoted healing and the development of the brain.[edit] Rauscher et. al. 1993 study
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) investigated the effect of listening to music by Mozart on spatial reasoning, and the results were published in Nature. They gave research participants one of three standard tests of abstract spatial reasoning after they had experienced each of three listening conditions: a sonata by Mozart, repetitive relaxation music, and silence. They found a temporary enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning, as measured by the Stanford-Binet IQ test. Shaw and Rauscher claim that their work has been misrepresented. What they have shown is "that there are patterns of neurons that fire in sequences, and that there appear to be pre-existing sites in the brain that respond to specific frequencies."* This is not quite the same as showing that listening to Mozart increases intelligence in children.[4]Rauscher et. al. show that the enhancing effect of the music condition is only temporary: no student had effects extending beyond the 15-minute period in which they were tested. The study makes no statement of an increase in IQ in general, but in participants' spatial intelligence scores.[4]
[edit] Popularization
While Rauscher et. al. only showed an increase in "spatial intelligence", the results were popularly interpreted as an increase in general IQ. This misconception, and the fact that the music used in the study was by Mozart, had an obvious appeal to those who valued this music; the Mozart effect was thus widely reported. In 1994, New York Times music columnist Alex Ross wrote in a light-hearted article, "researchers [Rauscher and Shaw] have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter", and presented this as the final piece of evidence that Mozart has dethroned Beethoven as "the world's greatest composer." A 1997 Boston Globe article mentioned some of the Rauscher and Shaw results. It described one study in which three- and four-year-olds who were given eight months of private piano lessons scored 34% higher on tests of spatio-temporal reasoning than control groups given computer lessons, singing lessons, and no training.The 1997 book by Don Campbell, "The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit", discusses the theory that listening to Mozart (especially the piano concertos) may temporarily increase one's IQ and produce many other beneficial effects on mental function. Campbell recommends playing specially selected classical music to infants, in the expectation that it will benefit their mental development. These theories are controversial. The relationship of sound and music (both played and listened to) for cognitive function and various physiological metrics has been explored in studies with no definitive results. After The Mozart Effect, Campbell wrote a follow-up book, The Mozart Effect For Children, and created related products. Among these are collections of music that he states harness the Mozart effect to enhance "deep rest and rejuvenation", "intelligence and learning", and "creativity and imagination". Campbell defines the term as "an inclusive term signifying the transformational powers of music in health, education, and well-being. It represents the general use of music to reduce stress, depression, or anxiety; induce relaxation or sleep; activate the body; and improve memory or awareness. Innovative and experimental uses of music and sound can improve listening disorders, dyslexia, attention deficit disorder, autism, and other mental and physical disorders and diseases".[5]
[edit] Political impact
The political impact of the theory was demonstrated on January 13, 1998, when Zell Miller, governor of Georgia, announced that his proposed state budget would include $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. Miller stated "No one questions that listening to music at a very early age affects the spatial-temporal reasoning that underlies math and engineering and even chess." Miller played legislators some of Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" on a tape recorder and asked "Now, don't you feel smarter already?" Miller asked Yoel Levi, music director of the Atlanta Symphony, to compile a collection of classical pieces that should be included. State representative Homer M. DeLoach said "I asked about the possibility of including some Charlie Daniels or something like that, but they said they thought the classical music has a greater positive impact. Having never studied those impacts too much, I guess I'll just have to take their word for that."[6][edit] Subsequent research and Meta-analyses
While some supportive reports have been published (e.g. [7]), studies with positive results have tended to be associated with any form of music that has energetic and positive emotional qualities[8]. Among children, some studies suggest no effect on IQ or spatial ability [9], whereas others suggest that the effect can be elicited with energetic popular music that the children enjoy. [10] The weight of subsequent evidence supports either a null effect, or short-term effects related to increases in mood and arousal, with mixed results published after the initial report in Nature. (e.g. [11])In 1999 a major challenge was raised to the existence of the Mozart effect by two teams of researchers [12][13]. In a pair of papers published together under the title "Prelude or Requiem for the 'Mozart Effect'?" Chabris reported a meta-analysis demonstrating that "any cognitive enhancement is small and does not reflect any change in IQ or reasoning ability in general, but instead derives entirely from performance on one specific type of cognitive task and has a simple neuropsychological explanation", called "enjoyment arousal". For example, he cites a study that found that "listening either to Mozart or to a passage from a Stephen King story enhanced subjects' performance in paper folding and cutting (one of the tests frequently employed by Rauscher and Shaw) but only for those who enjoyed what they heard". Steele et. al. found that "listening to Mozart produced a 3-point increase relative to silence in one experiment and a 4-point decrease in the other experiment".[14]. In another study, the effect was replicated with the original Mozart music, but eliminated when the tempo was slowed down and major chords were replaced by minor chords. [15]
Government bodies also became involved in analysing the wealth (some 300+ articles as of 2005) of reports. A German report concluded, for instance, that "... passively listening to Mozart — or indeed any other music you enjoy — does not make you smarter. But more studies should be done to find out whether music lessons could raise your child's IQ in the long term".[16][17]
Popular presentations of the "Mozart effect", including Alex Ross's comment that "listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter" and Zell Miller's "don't you feel smarter" query to the Georgia legislature, almost always tie it to "intelligence." Rauscher, one of the original researchers, has disclaimed this idea. In a 1999 reply to an article challenging the effect,[14] published along with the article, she wrote (emphasis added):
On efforts like Miller's budget proposal, and the press attention surrounding the effect, Rauscher has said, "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."[18]Our results on the effects of listening to Mozart's Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major K. 448 on spatial–temporal task performance have generated much interest but several misconceptions, many of which are reflected in attempts to replicate the research. The comments by Chabris and Steele et al. echo the most common of these: that listening to Mozart enhances intelligence. We made no such claim. The effect is limited to spatial–temporal tasks involving mental imagery and temporal ordering.
[edit] Health benefits
Music has been evaluated to see if it has other properties. The April 2001 edition of Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine assessed the possible health benefits of the music of Mozart.[19] John Jenkins played Sonata K.448 to patients with epilepsy and found a decrease in epileptiform activity. According to the British Epilepsy Organization, research has suggested that apart from Mozart's K.448 and Piano Concerto No. 23 (K. 488), only one other piece of music has been found to have a similar effect; a song by the Greek composer Yanni, entitled "Acroyali/Standing in Motion" (version from Yanni Live at the Acropolis performed at the Acropolis).[19] It was determined to have the "Mozart effect", by the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine because it was similar to Mozart's K.448 in tempo, structure, melodic and harmonic consonance and predictability.[19][20][edit] Other uses of Mozart's music
While it is clear that exposure to Mozart does not raise IQ, studies of the effects of music have explored as diverse areas as its links to seizure onset [19][21] or research in animals suggesting that even exposure in-utero in rats improves their maze learning[22] The original claim continues to influence public life. For instance a German sewage treatment plant plays Mozart music to break down the waste faster, reports the UK Guardian. Anton Stucki, chief operator of the Treuenbrietzen plant., is quoted as saying, "We think the secret is in the vibrations of the music, which penetrate everything—including the water, the sewage and the cells."[23][edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ William Pryse-Phillips (2003). Companion to Clinical Neurology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515938-1., p. 611 defines the term as "Slight and transient improvement in spational[sic] reasoning skills detected in normal subjects as a result of exposure to the music of Mozart, specifically his sonata for two pianos (K448)."
- ^ United States Patent and Trademark Office Trademark Application and Registration Retrieval (TARR).
- "Latest Status Info (75094728)". Filed 1996-04-26. http://tarr.uspto.gov/servlet/tarr?regser=serial&entry=75094728. Retrieved 2009-04-28.
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